Life Satisfaction in Canada

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(DRAFT) Canadian Database of Happiness Coefficients

Domain Category Change Effect on 0-10 Life Satisfaction Dynamics over time Confidence in effect and causality Data type Data source Country Reference Location in paper Comments
Education Duration Extra year of compulsory education -0.03 (± 0.098) converted from 1-7 to 0-10 LS Persistent effects High for UK; since effect found from 1972 UK compulsory school changes. Marginal result also found in other Western countries Panel BHPS 1996-2008 🇬🇧 Clark & Jung, 2017 Page 11, paragraph 1 (based on Table 3)
Environment Air pollution Increase of 1-day SO₂ level by 10 μg m⁻³ (equivalent to 3.9 ppb) -0.02 (± 0.02) on 5-point LS Temporary effect Effect robust in cross-sectional data; includes high-resolution geographic fixed effects. Cross-sectional CCHS 2005-11 🇨🇦 Barrington-Leigh & Behzadnejad, 2017 In text, bottom of page 16 of paper
Increase of average SO₂ level by 10 μg m⁻³ (equivalent to 3.9 ppb) -0.08 Unknown High; effects driven by unanticipated changes in power plant emissions due to policy Panel GSOEP 1983-2011 🇩🇪 Luechinger, 2009 Table 4, column II (IV estimate)
Increase of average PM10 level by 10 μg m⁻³ (equivalent to 3.9 ppb) 0.014 on a 3-point happiness scale Unknown Medium to high; effects of air pollution significantly exogenous for single individual Cross-sectional GSS (USA) 1984-96 🇺🇸 Levinson, 2012 Results section paragraph 1
Land use Increase of 1 hectare of greenspace within 1km of household +0.0066 (± 0.0049) Seems permanent Medium to high; panel data-based set but no clearcut exogenous variation; similar results by studies in the UK Panel GSOEP 2000-2012 🇩🇪 Krekel et al, 2016 Table B.2 Effects strongest for older residents
+0.0031 converted from 1-7 to 0-10 LS Seems permanent Medium to high; panel data-based set but no clearcut exogenous variation Panel BHPS 1991-2008 🇬🇧 White et al, 2013 0.0020 in Table 2, Column 5 Cited by / taken from DOHC in Frijters and Krekel...?
Increase of 1 hectare of vacant land (abandoned areas) within 1km of household -0.0395 (± 0.0002) Unknown Medium; panel data-based but no clearcut exogenous variation Panel GSOEP 2000-2012 🇩🇪 Krekel et al, 2016 Table B.2 Effects strongest for older residents
Construction of wind turbine within 4km around household -0.1405 (±0.0782) Seems temporary; effect disappears after 5 years High; wind turbine construction exogenous for household in surroundings, difference-in-differences with treatment at multiple points in time Panel GSOEP 2000-2012 🇩🇪 Krekel & Zerrahn, 2017 Table 2, column 1
Weather Daily rainfall of 6mm above average -0.008 (± 0.0012) on 5-point LS Temporary effect Effect is statistically significant and robust in cross-sectional dataset, but not in panel dataset Cross-sectional and panel CCHS 2005-11, NPHS 2004-10 🇨🇦 Barrington-Leigh & Behzadnejad, 2017 Table 2, Columns 7 and 8 Women and individuals with poor health condition are more affected
Work Employment status From employment to unemployment −.054 (±0.022) on 5-point happiness-in-life Short and long term effects High. Panel data, fixed instrumental effects Panel NPHS 1994-2007, CCHS 2009-11 🇨🇦 Latif, 2010 Table 3, Column 2 Not statistically significant for individuals aged 54 and older
-0.46 (±0.078) Immediate effect higher, then reducing, but no adaptation High. Large effects found in longitudinal cross-sections, recession-related and employment-shock related (plant closures) Panel GSEOP 🇩🇪 Flèche et al, 2019 Table 4.2
-0.71 (±0.059) Immediate effect higher then reducing, but no adaptation Immediate effect higher then reducing, but no adaptation Panel BCS70 🇬🇧 Flèche et al, 2019 Table 4.2
From full-time employed to part-time employed wanting more hours -0.108 (±0.016) Largely permanent Effect very robust in cross section and panels, but causality unclear Cross-sectional and panel GWP 2006-08 🇦🇺 🇨🇦 🇳🇿 🇺🇸 De Neve & Ward, 2017 Table 6.3, Column 8 "NA+ANZ" Particularly strong effect for men
From full-time employed to part-time employed not wanting more hours +0.080 (±0.043) Largely permanent Effect very robust in cross section and panels, but causality unclear Cross-sectional and panel GWP 2006-08 🇦🇺 🇨🇦 🇳🇿 🇺🇸 De Neve & Ward, 2017 Table 6.3, Column 8 "NA+ANZ" Particularly strong effect for men
From unemployment to out-of-labour force -0.23 (± 0.13) Unknown Cross-sectional data precludes causal claims Cross-sectional CCHS 2009-10 🇨🇦 Shi et al, 2019 Table 4.2
From working to retired (at age 55 or older) +0.056 (± 0.047) on 5-point happiness-in-life Unknown High. Panel data, fixed instrumental effects Panel NPHS 1994-2007 🇨🇦 Latif, 2011 Table 2, Column 4 No significant effect for ages 45-54
Job satisfaction One unit change on 0-10 scale of non-financial job satisfaction +0.15 (± 0.04) Unknown Cross sectional data but findings consistent between ESC and GSS data. Causality unclear. Cross-sectional GSS17, ESC2 🇨🇦 Helliwell & Huang, 2010 Table 1, Column 2 Income effect instrumented for ESC data, adjusted in GSS data
Type of job Employment in an occupation that is below an individual’s skills or work experience (non-immigrants) -0.280 (± 0.049) Unknown Cross-sectional data precludes causal claims Cross-sectional CCHS 2009-14 🇨🇦 Hou & Frank, 2017 Table 3, Column 2 Lower income just one of the important factors for non-immigrants.
Employment in an occupation that is below an individual’s skills or work experience (immigrants) -0.055 (± 0.096) Negative effect tends to diminish with increased length of stay in Canada Cross-sectional data precludes causal claims Cross-sectional CCHS 2009-14 🇨🇦 Hou & Frank, 2017 Table 3, Column 4 Lower income the main intermediate factor linking over-education to life satisfaction for immigrant
Being in a white collar job versus a blue collar job Approx. +0.80 Unknown Effect very robust in cross-section and panels but causality unclear Cross-sectional and panel GWP 2006-08 🌐 De Neve & Ward, 2017 Approximated from job categories in Table 6.5 (?) White collar includes: managers, officials, clerical and office workers; blue collar includes construction, transportation, farming
Commute From no commute to 1 hour car commute -0.012 (± 0.041) Unknown Low. Findings disputed and causality unclear. Panel BHPS 1996-2008 🇬🇧 Dickerson et al, 2014 Table 2, Column 2
-0.20 (± 0.098) Unknown Low. Findings disputed and causality unclear. Panel GSOEP 1985-2003 🇩🇪 Stutzer & Frey, 2008 Table 1, Column 2
Increase in commute (by ???) -0.18 (± 0.1176) on 10-point LS Unknown Low. Unclear units on time allocation commuting variable . Cross-sectional GSS 24 🇨🇦 Hilbrecht et al, 2014 Table 12, Column 2 Particularly strong effect for women; Significant indirect effects for time spent in physically active leisure and seriousness of traffic congestion
Work conditions Flexible work hours +0.19 (± 0.1176) Unknown Cross-sectional data precludes causal claims Cross-sectional GSS 24 🇨🇦 Hilbrecht et al, 2014 Table 12, Column 3
Finances Income Doubling of household income +0.16 (± 0.196) Persistent effects with elation peak High. Effect found in panels, cross-sections, and shock-related (lotteries). Panel BCS70 🇬🇧 Flèche et al, 2019 Table 2.1 Height disputed and income measurement problematic.
+0.5 Persistent effects with elation peak High. Effect found in panels, cross-sections, and shock-related (lotteries). Panel GSOEP 1991-2001 🇩🇪 Frijters et al, 2004 Table 2
Increase in difference between own log income and log income of a provincial reference group +0.194 (± 0.135) Unknown Medium. Panel data, significant negative effect as found in other Canadian literature. Panel NPHS 1994-2009 🇨🇦 Latif, 2016 Table 5, Column 2 Reference group contains all individuals with a similar education level that are inside the same age bracket and residing in the same province
Financial satisfaction High financial stress (self-rated) −0.864 (±0.086) Unknown Cross-sectional data, considering the possibility of an indirect effect of income through financial stress uncovers a strong effect of financial stress on life satisfaction, but an effect not clearly linked to income Cross-sectional GSS 19-24 🇨🇦 Brzozowski & Spotton, 2020 Table 2, Column 2 Measurement includes those who report 3 or higher on a 5-point stress scale and also choose "finances" as their primary source of stress
Prosocial spending Donated to charity in the past month +0.28 (±0.047) on 11-point Cantril ladder Unknown Cross-sectional data, relies on correlational analysis, supported by limited experimental data Cross-sectional and panel GWP 2006-08 🇦🇺 🇨🇦 🇳🇿 🇺🇸 Aknin et al, 2013 Region-specific coefficient using survey results from US, Canada, Australia, NZ
+0.27(±0.039) on 11-point Cantril ladder Unknown Cross-sectional data, relies on correlational analysis, supported by limited experimental data Cross-sectional and panel GWP 2006-08 🌐 Aknin et al, 2013
Health Physical health From excellent to poor physical health (self-rated) -2.19 (± 0.17) Unknown Cross-sectional data precludes causal claims Cross-sectional CCHS 2009-10 🇨🇦 Shi et al, 2019 Table 2, Column 1 Obtained from control variables
From healthy to poor physical health (self-rated) -1.080 (± 0.122) Permanent effect, with initial peak High as found everywhere, including to health shocks. Panel NCDS 1958-2009 🇬🇧 Frijters et al, 2014 Table 4, column 2
-0.96 Permanent effect, with initial peak High as found everywhere, including to health shocks. Panel GSOEP 1983-2011 🇩🇪 Ferrer-i-Carbonell & Frijters, 2004 Unclear but likely taken from Table 3. See additional comments column Based on a 3-point change in a 1-5 self-report measure of physical health
Satisfied with health status, at age 60 or older +0.292 (±0.059) on 10-point LS Unknown Medium. Cross-sectional data precludes causal claims, yet findings are consistent with many studies suggesting health is the strongest single predictor of late-life SWB Cross-sectional WVS 2005-07 🇨🇦 🇬🇧 🇳🇿 🇺🇸 Zelikova, 2013 Table 2, Column 7
Smoking From smoking daily to not at all +0.12 (± 0.04) Unknown Cross-sectional data precludes causal claims Cross-sectional CCHS 2009-10 🇨🇦 Shi et al, 2019 Table 2, column 1 Obtained from control variables
Nutrition From 0 to 8 portions of fruit and vegetables a day +0.16 (±0.08) Unknown Cross-sectional data precludes causal claims Cross-sectional CCHS 2009-10 🇨🇦 Shi et al, 2019 Table 2, column 2
+0.24 (±-0.03) Effect lasts while treatment lasts Medium. Fixed-effect estimates consistent with small RCTs and public health campaign results, but magnitude very unclear Panel HILDA 2007, 2009 🇦🇺 Mujcic & J.Oswald, 2016 Table 2, column 1 and 2; in text near beginning of page 3
Mental health From depression to full mental health +0.71 Permanent, little evidence of a peak High as found everywhere, including large clinical trials Panel BHPS 🇬🇧 Flèche et al, 2019 Table 16.2 Based on 4-point change on a 0-12 scale
From excellent to poor mental health (self-rated) -3.13 (±0.30) Unknown Cross-sectional data precludes causal claims Cross-sectional CCHS 2009-10 🇨🇦 Shi et al, 2019 Obtained from control variables
Social capital Friendships From 0 close friends to 3-5 close friends +0.241 (±0.017) on 10-point LS Unknown Cross sectional data; consistent with broader literature Cross-sectional GSS17 🇨🇦 Helliwell & Wang, 2011 Table 3, Column 1 Impact is much smaller for those who are married or living with a partner, suggesting friends and spouses provide some similar happiness benefits
Seeing close friends more frequently +0.096 (±0.051) on 10-point LS Unknown Cross-sectional data precludes causal claims, but consistent with Cross-sectional GSS17 🇨🇦 Helliwell & Wang, 2011 Table 3, Column 4 Frequency of visits with family and especially with friends add significantly to LS above and beyond the effects of having such networks in place
From 0 close relatives to 3-5 close relatives +0.526 (±0.149) on 10-point LS Unknown Cross sectional data; consistent with broader literature Cross-sectional GSS17 🇨🇦 Helliwell & Wang, 2011 Table 3, Column 1 Paper includes several categories of numbers of close relatives (1 or 2, 3-5, 6-10, 11-20, over 20), an increase from one category to the next is about 0.15
Seeing close relatives more frequently +0.096 (±0.051) on 10-point LS Unknown Cross sectional data; consistent with broader literature Cross-sectional GSS17 🇨🇦 Helliwell & Wang, 2011 Table 3, Column 1 Frequency of visits with family add significantly to LS above and beyond the effects of having the network in place
Can count on friends +0.414 (±0.090) on 11-point Cantril ladder Unknown Low. Cross sectional data with regional effects; causality unclear Cross-sectional GWP 2006 🌐 Helliwell & Wang, 2011 Comes from Y/N response to question: "If you were in trouble, do you have relatives or friends you can count on to help you whenever you need them, or not?"
Romantic relationships From single to married/partnered +0.28 (±-0.10) Permanent effect with initial peak High. Ubiquitous finding around the world Panel BHPS 🇬🇧 Flèche et al, 2019 Table 5.2
+0.1 Permanent effect with initial peak High. Ubiquitous finding around the world Panel GSOEP 1983-2011 🇩🇪 Ferrer-i-Carbonell & Frijters, 2004 Taken from Frijters and Krekel's table-- not exactly sure where this coefficient came from. Maybe Column 1: fixed effect ordered logit 0.08 in Table 3 ?
+0.60 (±0.022) Unknown High. Panel data, fixed instrumental effects Panel NPHS 1994-2007, CCHS 2009-11 🇨🇦 Latif, 2010 Table 3, Column 2
From never married to married at 50 or older +0.20 (±-0.078) Permanent effect with high initial peak Medium: cohort study findings so causality unclear Panel BHPS 🇬🇧 Flèche et al, 2019 Table 9.1
Never married, age 60 or older -0.122 (±-0.078) Unknown Medium. Cross-sectional data precludes causal claims, yet consistent with broader literature as found widely Cross-sectional data WVS 2005-07 🇨🇦 🇬🇧 🇳🇿 🇺🇸 Zelikova, 2013 Table 2, Column 7
From partnered to separated -0.40 (±-0.14) High intial effect, then some adaptation High as found everywhere. Panel BHPS 🇬🇧 Flèche et al, 2019 Table 5.2 Note that most find new partners and don't stay separated. Lone men suffer more.
Immigration Being an immigrant parent (female) -0.210 (±0.106) on 5-point LS No apparent improvement over time, "years since arrival" variable is statistically insignificant Medium. Cross sectional data, effect persists with controls for personal characteristics such as ethnicity, income, etc; consistent with broader literature Cross-sectional CCHS 2002-10 🇨🇦 Burton & Phipps, 2010 Table 5, Column 3 No statistically significant effect for female immigrant children once mediating variables (language, ethnicity) are added
Being an immigrant parent (male) -0.218 (±0.133) on 5-point LS No apparent improvement over time, "years since arrival" variable is statistically insignificant Medium. Cross sectional data, effect persists with controls for personal characteristics such as ethnicity, income, etc; consistent with broader literature Cross-sectional CCHS 2002-10 🇨🇦 Burton & Phipps, 2010 Table 5, Column 4 No statistically significant effect for female immigrant children once mediating variables (language, ethnicity) are added
Discrimination Experience religious discrimination -0.39 Unknown Cross-sectional data precludes causal claims Cross-sectional GSS27 🇨🇦 Vang et al, 2019 Table 4, Column 2 Significant positive interaction term suggests higher religiosity mitigates the negative effect of religious discrimination
Trust Social trust (self-reported trust in "most people") +0.131 on 10-point LS Unknown Cross-sectional data precludes causal claims; statistically significant positive effect on life satisfaction and domain satisfaction in all domains Cross-sectional GSS17 🇨🇦 van der Horst & Coffé, 2012 Table 3, Column 1 Social trust measured by a binary variable where 0 is ‘‘one cannot be too careful in dealing with people’’ and 1 is ‘‘most people can be trusted’’.
Believe a lost wallet is likely to be returned if found by neighbours +0.172 (±0.088) on 10-point LS Unknown Cross sectional data; consistent with GWP findings and broader literature Cross-sectional GSS17 🇨🇦 Helliwell & Wang, 2011 Table 3, Column 3 Respondents who live in high-density census tracts and are highly mobile are less likely to believe a neighbour would return their wallet
0.117 (±0.088) on 11-point Cantril ladder Unknown Medium. Cross sectional data includes regional fixed effects; generally consistent with broader literature Cross-sectional GWP 2006 🌐 Helliwell & Wang, 2011 Table 2-a, Column 6
Believe a lost wallet is likely to be returned if found by police 0.138 (±0.094) on 11-point Cantril ladder Unknown Medium. Cross sectional data includes regional fixed effects; generally consistent with broader literature Cross-sectional GWP 2006 🌐 Helliwell & Wang, 2011 Table 2-b, Column 6
Believe a lost wallet is likely to be returned if found by a stranger +0.074 (±0.098) on 11-point Cantril ladder Unknown Low. Cross sectional data includes regional fixed effects; but effect is statistically insignificant. Cross-sectional GWP 2006 🌐 Helliwell & Wang, 2011 Table 2-c, Column 6
+0.237 (±0.098) on 10-point LS Unknown Cross sectional data precludes causal claims but is consistent with GWP findings and broader literature Cross-sectional GSS17 🇨🇦 Helliwell & Wang, 2011 Table 3, Column 3
Trust in neighbours +0.336 (±0.140) on 10-point LS Unknown Cross sectional data precludes causal claims but is consistent with broader literature on community-level trust Cross-sectional GSS17 🇨🇦 Helliwell & Wang, 2011 Table 3, Column 5 Respondents who live in high-density census tracts and are highly mobile are less likely to trust their neighbours
Trust in co-workers +0.638 (±0.149) on 10-point LS Unknown Cross sectional data precludes causal claims; Cross-sectional GSS17 🇨🇦 Helliwell & Wang, 2011 Table 3, Column 5
Confidence in police +0.361 (±0.114) on 10-point LS Unknown Cross sectional data precludes causal claims Cross-sectional GSS17 🇨🇦 Helliwell & Wang, 2011 Table 3, Column 5
Belonging Sense of belonging to the community +0.781 (±0.110) on 10-point LS Unknown Cross sectional data precludes causal claims but is consistent with broader literature suggesting community-level belonging is most important Cross-sectional GSS17 🇨🇦 Helliwell & Wang, 2011 Table 3, Column 5 A sense of belonging to one’s community is strongly associated with neighbourhood trust
Sense of belonging to the province +0.274 (±0.114) on 10-point LS Unknown Cross sectional data precludes causal claims Cross-sectional GSS17 🇨🇦 Helliwell & Wang, 2011 Table 3, Column 5
Sense of belonging to Canada +0.336 (±0.137) on 10-point LS Unknown Cross sectional data precludes causal claims Cross-sectional GSS17 🇨🇦 Helliwell & Wang, 2011 Table 3, Column 5 A sense of belonging to Canada is strongly associated with general social trust
Crime Violent crime Victim of violent crime -0.396 Effect largely in first year (only statistically significant in first year) High but specific: effects are for unanticipated events that were recorded Panel HILDA 2002-12 🇦🇺 Johnston et al, 2018 Table 3 (?) Effect of -0.398 for females and -.300 for males
Fear A doubling fear of crime Approx -0.30 Unknown Medium. Panel data-based, often replicated, but drivers of fear not exogenous Panel Nationwide representative study on victimization and crime-related issues, 2010 🇩🇪 Hanslmaier, 2013 "derived from the relative effect of fera of crime versus effect from unemployment in a log-odds setting" (note on this reference in Frijters handbook) Derived from relative effect of fear of crime versus effect from unemployment in a log-odds setting

Bibliography

This project was made possible by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada (supporting Barrington-Leigh) and the Arts Research Internship Award Programme at McGill University (supporting Katja Lemermeyer).

For how to cite this database, and for the method and principles behind it, see Barrington-Leigh and Lemermeyer, "A public, open, and independently-curated database of happiness coefficients", Journal of Happiness Studies, doi 10.1007/s10902-023-00652-4, April 2023.

This is a demonstration effort and should be considered a draft. Questions and comments should be sent to Chris Barrington-Leigh and Katja Lemermeyer, McGill University, September 2020--.